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ILLUSTRATIONS: 



PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOQY. 

WITH 

DESCRIPTIVE LETTER PRESS. 
BY JAMES PAXTON, 

MEMBER OF .THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, LONDON. 



"Of muscular actions, even of those well understood, some of the most 
curious are incapable of popular explanation, without the aid of Plates and 
Figures." Paley's Theology, Ch. ix. 



BOSTON : 
HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE, AND W1LKINS. 

1827. 



1BL i ?i 



CAMBRIDGE. 



University Press. — Hilliard, Metcalf, and Co. 



TO THE 

HONOURABLE AND RIGHT REVEREND 

SHUTE BARRINGTON, LL. D. 

lord bishop of durham. 

My Lord, 

To your suggestion the world is indebt- 
ed for the existence of Dr. Paley's valuable work on 
Natural Theology. The universal and permanent 
esteem in which it has been held in this country, and 
its favourable reception in France, even after the des- 
olating influence of the Revolution, have abundantly 
approved your Lordship's selection both of the sub- 
ject and of the person to whom you intrusted it. 

In looking round, then, for a patron for these 
Illustrations, it was natural to have recourse to him 
who was the original suggestor of the work which it 
is their object to explain. Nor was I disappointed in 
my wish; your Lordship not only condescending to 
approve of the design, but to encourage me in ks 
prosecution by your very liberal support. For this.' 



DEDICATION. 

distinguished honour you will believe me deeply sensi- 
ble ; and if I may indulge the hope that my humble 
efforts will increase the utility of so eminent a writer, 
I shall consider it the highest gratification. 
I am, 

My Lord, 

With great veneration, 

Your Lordship's most obliged 

And obedient servant, 

JAMES PAXTON. 

Oxford, 
January 1, 1826. 



PREFACE. 



The works of Dr. Paley have acquired that popu- 
larity which renders it scarcely necessary to observe 
that his Natural Theology was written to establish 
the truth of the agency and wisdom of the Deity from 
the admirable contrivances and mechanism displayed 
in natural objects, inferring from thence that the 
knowledge and power requisite for the formation of 
created nature must be infinite. 

The principal physical arguments made use of re- 
late to organs destined to mechanical functions, as the 
bones of man — the muscles — the structure of animals, 
or comparative anatomy — prospective and compensa- 
tory contrivances — insects and plants : with most of 
these objects the anatomist only can be conversant ; 
but all admit of graphic representation, and such has 
been attempted. 

The designs of the following plates are original, 
obtained from the most authentic sources, and sub- 



PREFACE. 

mitted to the critical examination of the most com- 
petent judges. It is hoped that the illustrations will 
be found the more interesting from their being sim- 
ple and unincumbered by parts irrelevant to the sub- 
ject of the author. These are accompanied by notes, 
which are intended to supply defective or correct 
erroneous statements, and to explain the plates. 

The undertaking originated in the difficulty of un- 
derstanding the various descriptions introduced by 
Paley, not however from his want of clearness, for 
the subjects in general are plainly and correctly de- 
scribed ; but it is evident that visible representations 
strike the mind more forcibly than mere descriptions. 
It is therefore presumed that the subsequent illustra- 
tions will be an acquisition, by bringing vividly to the 
imagination, objects of w 7 hich only an imperfect idea 
could otherwise be formed ; and that they will con- 
sequently render the work more intelligible to the 
general reader. 



CHAPTER I. 



TAB. I. THE WATCH. 



Fig. 1 . The spring and barrel, or first power, with the chain 
which connects it to — 

Fig. 2. The fusee and great wheel. The fusee is tapered at 
the top to correct the irregular recoil of the spring. The great 
wheel turns — 

Fig. 3. The centre wheel and pinion, which makes one rev- 
olution in an hour, carries the minute hand, and turns — 

Fig. 4. The third wheel and pinion, which turns the con- 
trate wheel. 

Fig. 5. The contrate wheel, which makes one revolution in 
a minute, and turns the balance or escape wheel. 

Fig. 6. The balance wheel, which acts upon the pallats of 
the verge, and escapes or drops from one pallat to another al- 
ternately, thereby keeping the balance in constant vibration. 

Fig. 7. The balance verge and balance or pendulum spring, 
which regulates the whole machine. 

Fig. 8. The cannon pinion, affixed to the centre wheel ar- 
bour, on which the minute hand is placed. 
Fig. 9. The minute wheel. 

Fig. 10. The hour wheel. These wheels are turned by 
the cannon pinion, and having a greater number of teeth, move 
much slower than the cannon pinion, and mark the hour by 
the hand on the dial. 

The above is a description of the several wheels alluded to 
by Paley. Their relative situation, and combined movement, 
may be seen by the simple inspection of a watch. 



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CHAPTER III. 

TAB. II. THE EYE. 

Fig. 1 . The crystalline lens of a fish ; it is proportionably 
larger than in other animals, and perfectly spherical. 

Fig. 2. A section of the human eye. It is formed of vari- 
ous coats, or membranes, containing pellucid humours of differ- 
ent degrees of density. 

The external membrane, called sclerotic, is strong and firm, 
the support of the spherical figure of the eye ; it is deficient in 
the centre, but that part is supplied by the cornea, which is 
transparent and projects like the segment of a small globe from 
one of larger size. The interior of the sclerotic is lined by the 
choroid, covered by a dark mucous secretion, termed pigmen- 
tum nigrum, intended to absorb the superfluous rays of light. 
The choroid is represented in the plate by the black line. The 
third and inner membrane, which is marked by the white line, 
is the retina, the expanded optic nerve. 

Within these coats of the eye, are the humours, a, the aque- 
ous humour, a thin fluid like water ; b, the crystalline lens of a 
dense texture ; c, the vitreous humour, in appearance like jelly. 
Together they make a compound lens, which refracts the rays 
of light issuing from an object, d, and delineates its figure, e, 
in the focus upon the retina, inverted. 

Fig. 3. The lens of the telescope. 

Fig. 4. The crystalline lens. 

Fig. 5, 6. A plan of the circular and radiated fibres which 
the iris is supposed to possess ; the former contracts, the latter di- 
lates the pupil, or aperture formed by the inner margin of the iris. 

Fig. 7. a, a, a, a, the four straight muscles, arising from the 
bottom of the orbit, where they surround, c, the optic nerve ; 
and are inserted by broad thin tendons at the fore part of the 
globe of the eye into the tunica sclerotica. 



Ti\B. II; 



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CHAPTER Ifl. 

TAB. III. THE EYE OF BIRDS AND OF THE EEL. 

Fig. 1, 2. The flexible rim, or hoop, of the eye of birds, 
consisting of bony plates, which occupy the front of the sclero- 
tic ; lying close together and overlapping each other. These 
bony plates in general form a slightly convex ring, Fig. 1, but 
in the accipitres they form a concave ring, as in Fig. 2, the 
bony rim of a hawk. 

Fig. 3, 4, 6. exhibit the marsupium; it arises from the 
back of the eye, proceeding apparently through a slit in the 
retina ; it passes obliquely into the vitreous humour, and termi- 
nates in that part, as in the eagle, Fig. 3, a section of the eye 
of the falco chrysaetos. In some species it reaches the lens, and 
is attached to it, Fig. 4, 6. In the plate the marsupium is 
marked with a *. 

Fig. 5. The head of an eel ; the skin is represented turned 
back ; and as the transparent horny covering of the eye, a, a, 
is a cuticular covering, it is separated with it. 



TAB. Ill 




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CHAPTER III. 

TAB. IV. THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS AND 

NICTITATING MEMBRANE. 

Fig. 1. a, the lachrymal gland, the source of the tears; b, 
its several ducts, diffusing this fluid over the eye ; c, c, the 
puncta lachrymalia, which convey the tears into, d, the lachry- 
mal sac, terminating in the nostril. 

Fig. 2. The nictitating membrane, or third eyelid ; it is a 
thin semi-transparent fold of the conjunctive, which, in a state of 
rest, lies in the inner corner of the eye, with its loose edge 
nearly vertical, but can be drawn out so as to cover the whole 
front of the globe. In this figure it is represented in the act of 
being drawn over the eye. 

Fig. 3. The muscles of the nictitating membrane are very 
singular in their form and action ; they are attached to the back 
of the sclerotic ; one of them, a, which from its shape is called 
quadratus, has its origin from the upper and back part of the 
sclerotic ; its fibres descend towards the optic nerve, and termi- 
nate in a curved margin with a cylindrical canal in it. The 
other muscle, b, which is called pyramidalis, arises from the 
lower and back part of the sclerotic. It has a long tendinous 
chord, c, which passes through the canal of the quadratus, a, 
as a pulley, and having arrived at the lower and exterior part of 
the eye-ball, is inserted into the loose edge of the nictitating 
membrane. This description refers also to Fig. 4, a profile 
of the eye, and Fig. 5, the membrane and its muscles detached 
from the eye. 



TAB. IV. 








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CHAPTER III. 

TAB. V. THE HUMAN EAR, AND TYMPANUM OF 

THE ELEPHANT. 

Fig. 1 . a, the external ear ; b, the meatus auditorius exter- 
nus; c, the membrana iymjpani ; d, the ossicula auditus ; e, the 
semicircular canals ; f, the cochlea ; g, a section of the eustachi- 
an tube, which extends from the cavity of the tympanum, to the 
interior of the fauces. 

Fig. 2. The bones of the ear magnified, a, the malleus, 
connected by a process to the tympanum : the round head is 
lodged in the body of, b, the incus, and the incus is united to, c, 
the os orbiculare, and this to, d, the stapes. 

Fig. 3. The labyrinth, so named from the intricacy of its 
cavities ; it is situated in the petrous part of the temporal bone, 
and consists of the vestibule, or central cavity, three semicircular 
canals, and cochlea, and is best explained by the plate, Fig. 1, 
and 3. 

The vibrations of sounds, striking against the membrana 
tympani, are propagated by the intervention of these four little 
bones, to the water contained within the cavities of the laby- 
rinth ; and by means of this water the impression is conveyed 
to the extremities of the auditory nerve. 

Fish require no tympanum, nor external opening to the ear ; 
the fluid in which they live is the medium for conducting sounds 
through the bones of the head. 

Fig. 4. The tympanum of the elephant, of its natural size. 



TAB. -V. 




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CHAPTER VII. 

TAB. VI. TROCHLEAR MUSCLE OF THE EYE, 

AND KIDNEY. 

Fig. 1. The trochlear or superior oblique muscle, arises with 
the straight muscles from the bottom of the orbit. Its muscular 
portion, a, is extended over the upper part of the eye-ball, and 
gradually assumes the form of a smooth round tendon, b, which 
passes through the pulley, c, and is fixed to the inner edge of 
the orbit, d, then turning backwards and downwards, e, is in- 
serted into,/, the sclerotic membrane. 

Fig. 2. A section of the human kidney ; a, the emulgent 
artery which conveys the blood to, b, the papillce, where the 
peculiar fluid is secreted ; from whence it passes by tubes into 
c, the pelvis ; d, the emulgent vein which returns the blood ; e, 
the ureter, or tube, which conducts the secretion to its recepta- 
cle. 



Ti J i B. VI, 



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CHAPTER VIIL 

TAB. VII. VERTEBBJE OF THE HUMAN NECK. 

Fig. 1 . A representation of the head and the neck ; the lat- 
ter is composed of seven bones called vertebra. 

Fig. 2. exhibits the first and second vertebrae, with their 
mode of connexion. The uppermost vertebra, termed the atlas, 
from its supporting the globe of the head, has an oval concave 
surface on either side, a, a, for the reception of two correspond- 
ing convex surfaces placed on the lower part of the head, in 
such a manner as only to admit of the action of bending and 
raising the head. 

Fig. 3. The atlas. 

Fig. 4. The second vertebra, called dentata, has two plane 
surfaces, a, a, adapted to the planes, «, a, Fig. 3. of the atlas : 
and this manner of articulation provides for the turning of the 
head laterally in almost every direction. Fig. 2. and 4. 6, b, 
show the tooth-like process which affords a firm pivot for the 
production of the lateral motion just described. This process 
is received into a corresponding indentation of the atlas, Fig. 3. 
b, and a strong ligament passes behind it, serving as an effectual 
security against dislocation, and consequent compression of the 
spinal marrow. Fig. 4. d, marks the situation of the spinal 
marrow, which passes through the ring of each vertebra. The 
letter, c, indicates a perforation in the lateral process ; and as 
there is a corresponding perforation in each lateral, or as it is 
termed transverse process of the seven cervical vertebrae, a con- 
tinuous passage is thus formed for the protection of two import- 
ant blood-vessels destined to supply the brain. 



TAB„ VII. ■ 







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CHAPTER VIII. 

TAB. VIII. BONES OF THE ARM. 

Fig. 1. a, the humerus ; the head, b, is a portion of a sphere, 
and exhibits an example of the ball and socket, or universal 
joint ; c, the hinge joint, instanced in the elbow ; d, the radius ; 
e, the ulna. The radius belongs more peculiarly to the wrist, 
being the bone which supports the hand, and which turns with it 
in all its revolving motions. The ulna principally belongs to 
the elbow joint, for by it we perform all the actions of bending 
or extending the arm. 

Fig. 2. a, the humerus : b, shows the connexion of the ra- 
dius, with, c, the ulna, at the elbow. The mode of articulation 
at the wrist is seen, Fig. 1 . 



TABo "VJLIIX 




f'e-na' Ic-i-ci 



CHAPTER VIIL 



TAB. IX. THE SPINE. 



Fig. 1. The human spine, so named from the series of sharp 
processes projecting from the posterior part of the vertebrae. 
The spine consists of seven vertebrae of the neck, distinguished 
by the perforations in their transverse processes; of twelve 
belonging to the back, and marked by depressions for the heads 
of the ribs ; and, lastly, of five belonging to the loins, which 
are larger than the other vertebrae. 

Fig. 2. A separated dorsal vertebra : a, the body of the 
vertebra ; b, the ring through which the spinal marrow passes : 
c, c, the articulating surfaces to which the ribs are united. 

Fig. 3. The vertebra of a very large serpent, drawn from a 
specimen belonging to the anatomy school of Christ Church, 
Oxford. This figure shows the socket of the vertebra. 

Fig. 4. The ball or rounded joint, evidently calculated for ex- 
tensive motion. 

Fig. 5. A part of the spine of the same reptile ; it is exceed- 
ingly strong, each bone being united to the other by fifteen sur- 
faces of articulation. 



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CHAPTER VIII. 

TAB. X. THE CHEST, PATELLA, AND SHOULDER 

BLADE. 

Fig. 1. The spine, ribs, and sternum, constitute the frame- 
work of the chest or thorax. Referring however to the plate, 
or to nature, we observe that the ribs are not continued through- 
out from the spine to the sternum, but intervening cartilages 
complete the form of the chest, by connecting the end of the 
rib to the breast bone. This is a further provision, relative to 
the mechanical function of the lungs, deserving notice. The 
muscles of respiration enlarge the capacity of the chest by 
elevating the ribs ; and during the momentary interval of mus- 
cular action the cartilages, from their great elasticity, restore the 
ribs to their former position. 

Fig. 2. represents the true shape of the patella, the anterior 
surface convex. Fig. 3. the posterior surface, has two concave 
depressions, adapted to the condyles of the thigh bone. The 
projection of the patella, as a lever, or pulley, removes the act- 
ing force from the centre of motion, by which means the muscles 
have a greater advantage in extending the leg. 

Fig. 4. The shoulder-blade {scapula) is joined to the collar 
bone by ligaments, and to the thorax by powerful muscles 
which are capable of sustaining immense weights, and whose 
action gives the various directions to the arm, and enables it 
freely to revolve at the shoulder joint. 



TAI . 










CHAPTER VIII. 

TAB. XI.— THE HIP, KNEE, AND ANKLE JOINTS. 

Fig. 1. The capsular ligament is here opened in order to 
show the ligament of the hip, named the round ligament It 
allows considerable latitude of motion, at the same time that it 
is the great safe-guard against dislocation. 

Fig. 2. and 4. The crucial or internal ligaments of the 
knee-joint arise from each side of the depression between the 
condyles of the thigh bone ; the anterior is fixed into the cen- 
tre, the posterior into the back of the articulation of the tibia. 
This structure properly limits the motions of the joint, and gives 
the firmness requisite for violent exertions. Viewing the form 
of the bones, we should consider it one of the weakest and most 
superficial, but the strength of its ligaments renders it the most 
secure, and the least liable to dislocation of any joint in the 
whole body. 

Fig. 3. One the inter articular cartilages of the knee, from 
their shape called semilunar ; it is also represented in situ, Fig. 
2. The outer edge of each cartilage is thick, the inner 
concave edge thin ; the sockets for the condyles of the thigh 
bone are thus rendered deep, and the cartilages are so fixed as 
to allow a little play on the tibia, by which the joint moves with 
great freedom. 

A moving cartilage is not common, but is peculiar to those 
joints whose motions are very frequent, or which move under a 
great weight. It is a contrivance found at the inner head of 
the collar bone and the articulation of the wrist, as well as at 
the knee. The obvious use is to lessen friction and facilitate 
motion. 

Fig. 4. exhibits the formation of the ankle joint; a, the fi- 
bula ; b, the tibia. 



TAB.1I, 









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CHAPTER IX. 



TAB. XII. THE SARTORIUS, AND OBLIQUE MUSCLES 

OF THE HEAD. 



Fig. 1. a, a, the sartorius, is the longest muscle of the whole 
human fabric : it is extended obliquely across the thigh from 
the fore part of the hip (the anterior superior spinous process of 
the os ilium,) to the inner side of the tibia. Its office is to 
bend the knee and bring the leg inwards. 

Fig. 2. There are two pairs of oblique muscles ; a, a, the 
obliquus capitis superior, arising from the transverse process of 
the atlas, and inserted into the occipital bone ; b, b, the obliquus 
capitis inferior, arising from the spinous process of the dentata, 
and inserted into the transverse process of the atlas. 



TJVB. XII. 









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CHAPTER XL 

TAB. XIII. THE MUSCLES OF THE ARM. 

Fig. 1. a, the biceps (biceps flexor cubiti) arise by two por- 
tions from the scapula ; they form a thick mass of flesh in the 
middle of the arm, which is finally inserted into the upper end 
of the radius; b, the brachiceus internus, arises from the middle 
of the 05 humeri, and is inserted into the ulna. Both these 
muscles bend the fore-arm. c, the longus et brevis brachiceus 
externus ; these are better named as one muscle, triceps extensor 
cubiti. It is attached to the inferior edge of the scapula, and 
to the os humeri, by three distinct heads, which unite and 
invest the whole back part of the bone, becoming a strong 
tendon which is implanted into the elbow. It is a powerful 
extensor of the fore-arm. d, the anconceus, a small triangular 
muscle, situated at the outer side of the elbow : it assists the 
last muscle. 

Fig. 1. and 2. e, e, the annular ligament of the wrist, under 
which pass the tendons of the muscles of the fingers. 

Fig. 1./. the deltoid muscle ; the muscle at the shoulder by 
which the arm is raised. 



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CHAPTER IX. 

TAB. XIV. THE MUSCLES THAT RAISE THE EYE-LIDS, 

AND SPHINCTER OR CIRCULAR MUSCLES. 

Fig. 1 . A front view of the muscle named levator palpebrce 
superioris : Fig. 2. a profile of the same in its natural position. 
This muscle arises within the orbit, and is inserted by a broad 
tendon into the upper eye-lid. 

Fig. 3. exhibits examples of sphincter muscles : a, a, the 
orbicularis palpebrarum, encircling the eyelid ; it closes the eye, 
and compresses it with spasmodic violence when injured by 
particles of dust, &c. b, the orbicularis oris, surrounding the 
mouth ; it chief use is to contract the lips. 



TAm.XTT^ 






Zith- of Hwct/etoA!- 



CHAPTER IX. 

TAB. XV. THE DIGASTRIC MUSCLE. 

Fig. 1. and 2. The digastric muscle has its origin, a, at the 
lower part of the temporal hone ; it runs downwards and for- 
wards, and forms a strong round tendon, b, which passes 
through the stylo-hyoiideus, f; it is then fixed by a strong 
ligament, c, to the os hyoides, d; it again becomes fleshy, 
runs upwards, and is inserted into the chin. This description 
differs from Dr. Paley's, and it will be found by reference to 
dissections or the plate, that the os hyoides furnishes a stay or 
brace instead of a pulley, and that the loop or ring is in the 
stylo-hyoideus muscle. 



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CHAPTER IX. 

TAB. XVI. THE TENDONS OF THE TOES. 

Fig. 1. a, the tendon of the long flexor of the toes, which 
divides about the middle of the foot into four portions, passing 
through the slits in, b, the short flexor tendons. Fig. 2. explains 
a similar contrivance belonging to each finger : a, a tendon of 
the flexor sublimis ; b, a tendon of the flexor profundus, passing 
through it. 

Fig. 3. a, b, tendons of the extensor muscles of the toes ; c, 
a tendon of the flexor of the foot. These are bound down and 
retained in situ by, e, the annular ligament of the instep. 



'irA.TB.SKVlL 





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143 i 




CHAPTER X. 



TAB. XVII. THE HEART. 



Fig. 1. A section of the human heart ; a, a, the superior and 
inferior vena cava, the veins which convey the blood to, b, the 
right auricle ; and thence into, c, the corresponding ventricle ; 
from this ventricle the blood is impelled through, e, the pulmo- 
nary artery into the lungs ; and returning by,/,/, the pulmonary 
veins, it is received into, g, the left auricle : it flows next into, 
h, the left ventricle ; which by its contraction distributes the 
blood through the general arterial system :—j, the aorta, the 
great artery which transmits blood to the different parts of 
the body, from whence it is returned by veins to the cava, : k, 
the right subclavian ; I, the right carotid arteries, originating 
from one common trunk ; m, the left carotid; n, the left subcla- 
vian : d, the valves of the right ; i, the valves of the left 
ventricle. 

Fig. 2. The valves of the right side (tricuspid valves) separat- 
ed from the heart ; a, a, a, the earner columnce, or muscular 
fibres of the valves ; b, b, b, the chorda tendinece, or tendinous 
filaments which are attached to, c, the valves. 

Fig. 3. exhibits the artery cut open, with the form of the 
semilunar valves. 

Fig. 4. A portion of the artery filled, showing how effectually 
the valves prevent the retrograde motion of the blood. 



TPAm-^ryrui 




c K 




Zith. of Pmct/etosi, Boston. 



CHAPTER X. 

TAB. XVIII. THE STOMACH, GALL BLADDER, &C. 

Fig. 1. a, the stomach; b, the cardia ; c, the pylorus. The 
gastric juice is a secretion derived from the inner membrane of 
the stomach, and digestion is principally performed by it. In 
the various orders of animated beings it differs, being adapted 
to the food on which they are accustomed to subsist. The food, 
when properly masticated, is dissolved by the gastric fluid, and 
converted into chyme ; so that most kinds of the ingesta lose 
their specific qualities ; and the chemical changes to which they 
would otherwise be liable, as putridity and rancidity, &c. are 
thus prevented. 

In this plate, h, the liver is turned up, in order to show the 
gall-bladder which is attached to its concave surface ; d, the 
duodenum ; e, part of the small intestines ; f, the pancreas ; and 
g, the spleen. 

Fig. 2. explains the several ducts and their communication 
with the duodenum ; a, the gall-bladder ; b, the ductus cysticus ; 
which uniting with, c, the ductus hepaticus, forms, d, the ductus 
communis ; which, after passing between the muscular and inner 
coats of the intestine, opens into it at e. /, the pancreatic duct. 
The bile is said to become more viscid, acrid, and bitter, from 
the thinner parts being absorbed during its retention in the gall- 
bladder. 



TAB. XTHH, 




CHAPTER X. 

TAB. XIX. THE LACTEALS, AND THORACIC DUCT. 

The figure in this plate represents the course of the food, 
from its entrance at the mouth to its assimilation with the blood • 
a, the cesophagus, extending from the pharynx, to, b, the stomach ; 
where the alimentary matter having undergone the digestive 
process, escapes at, c, the pylorus, into, d, the intestines. In 
this plate a large portion of the latter is spread out to show a 
part of the absorbent system called lacteals : these collect and 
imbibe the chyle from the ingesta, and transmit it through, e, e, 
the mesenteric glands, into one general receptacle,/, (receptacu- 
lum chyli,) from which g, the thoracic duct ascends in a more 
or less tortuous direction to the lower vertebras of the neck, and 
after forming an arch, it descends and enters, h, the left subcla- 
vian vein, at the point where that vein is united with the internal 
jugular. The absorbents of the right side frequently form a 
trunk, which enters the right subclavian vein. 



TAB, XIX. 





££.' 



CHAPTER X. 

TAB. XX. THE PAROTID GLAND. 

Fig. 1. A dissection to exhibit the parotid gland. 

Fig. 2. explains the former ; a, a, the integuments turned 
back; b, the parotid gland ; c, its pipe or duct passing over the 
masseter, then perforating, d, the buccinator muscle, and opening 
into the mouth opposite the second molar tooth. 



TAB. II, 




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CHAPTER X. 



TAB. XXI. THE LARYNX. 



Fig. 1. The larynx, pharynx, he, a, the os hyoides, b, the 
epiglottis pressed down, thus covering the glottis, or opening of 
the larynx ; as it does in the act of deglutition. 

Fig. 2. exhibits the larynx, and trachea ; which is a contin- 
uation of the former ; b, the epiglottis ; g, the arytenoid carti- 
lages ; e, the thyroid cartilage, exceedingly strong, for the 
protection of the upper part of the air tube ; d, the cartilaginous 
ringlets of the trachea or wind-pipe, each forming nearly two- 
thirds of a circle, and completed by a soft membrane, which, 
from its apposition to, e, Fig. 1. the esophagus, accommodates 
itself to the substances passing into the stomach. 

Fig. 3. The larynx or upper part of the wind-pipe of a bird. 



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CHAPTER XL 

TAB. XXII. — PACKAGE OF THE VISCERA, AND 
MESENTERY. 

Fig. 1. In this plate the parietes of the chest and abdomen, 
with the omentum, are removed to show the viscera in situ ; a, 
the heart ; b, the aorta ; c, the descending vena cava : d, the 
lungs divided by the mediastinum into two portions ; three lobes 
belong to the right, and two to the left portion of the lungs ; e, 
the diaphragm; f, the liver; g, the gall-bladder; h, the 
stomach ; i, the spleen ; h, the large intestines ; I, the small in- 
testines; m, the bladder. 

The viscera of the thorax and abdomen, i. e. the viscera of 
organic life, are irregularly disposed. The agents of volition 
are double, but the instruments of involuntary motion, namely 
the interior life, are single, and at least are irregular in their 
form. 

The several viscera are correctly described in the Theology, 
and sufficient is said for the purposes for which they are intro- 
duced. To the supposed use of the spleen only an objection 
must be taken : various hypotheses have been entertained as to 
its office, but none are conclusive ; the most probable is, that it 
is a source of supply of blood for furnishing the gastric secre- 
tion, or that the blood undergoes some important change in it. 

Fig. 2. The mesentery. This membrane is formed by a re- 
flection of the peritoneum from each side of the vertebrae ; it 
connects the intestines loosely to the spine, to allow them a 
certain degree of motion, yet retains them in their places ; and 
furnishes their exterior covering. Between the laminae of, a, 
the mesentery, are received the glands, vessels , and nerves ; and 
its extent admits of a proper distribution of each. 




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CHAPTER XII. 

TAB. XXIII. NERVES OF THE BILL OF A DUCK, 

VALVULE CONN I VENTES. CHAP. XIII. AIR-BLADDER 
OF A FISH, AND FANG OF THE VIPER. 

Fig. 1. The upper mandible of the duck, on which are dis- 
tributed the first and second branches of the fifth pair of nerves ; 
the former passing through the orbit to the extremity of the 
bill, and, together with the latter, supplying the whole palatine 
surface. 

Fig. 2. A small portion of the human intestine cut open in 
order to show the valvules conniventes. It may be questioned, 
whether these extremely soft rugae or folds of the villous coat 
of the intestine can in the least retard the passage of the food 
through its canal ; nor does, as Paley supposes, the erect atti- 
tude of man require them; for, since there are as many of the 
convolutions of the intestines ascending as there are descending, 
the weight of the food can have no influence in the action of 
the intestine : it is certain, however, that this arrangement of 
the internal coat, affords a more extensive surface of the lacteals 
and secreting vessels; and this appears to be the real use of the 
valvulce conniventes. 

Fig. 3. The air-bladder in the roach. This vessel differs 
in size and shape, in different species of fish ; generally commu- 
nicating, by one or more ducts, either with the oesophagus or 
stomach .; by which means the fish receives or expels the air, 
thus sinking or rising without effort: but as some are destitute 
of this organ, it is considered as an accessary instrument of 
motion. 

Fig. 4. The head of a viper of the natural size. 

Fig. 5. The/«^magnified, at the root of which is the gland 
which secretes the venom : a hair is represented in the tube, 
through which the poison is ejected. 



TAB. XXII, 





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CHAPTER XIIL 



TAB. XXIV. THE OPOSSUM. 



Fig. 1 . The American opossum ; (didelphis marsupialis.) 

Fig. 2. One of the young of the opossum. 

Fig. 3. The pelvis of the opossum ; a, a, the two bones (ossa 
marsupialia) placed on the anterior part called the ossa pubis. 
Drawn from a specimen in the Museum of the Royal College 
of Surgeons, London. 

The kangaroo and several other animals of New Holland 
have a similar structure. 



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CHAPTER XIII. 

TAB. XXV. CLAW OF THE HERON, AND BILL OF 

THE SOLAND GOOSE. 

Fig. 1. The middle claw of the heron. 
Fig. 2. The head of the Soland goose (pelicanus bassanus). 
drawn from a specimen in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. 



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CHAPTER XIII. 

TAB. XXVI. STOMACH OF THE CAMEL. 

The figure in this plate exhibits the cells in the stomach of 
the camel, from a preparation in the museum of the Royal 
College of Surgeons, London. In the camel, dromedary, and 
lama, there are four stomachs, as in horned ruminants ; but the 
structure, in some respects, differs from those of the latter. 
The camel tribe have in the first and second stomach numerous 
cells, several inches deep, formed by bands of muscular fibres 
crossing each other at right angles ; these are constructed so as 
to retain the water, and completely exclude the food. In a 
camel dissected by Sir E. Home, the cells of the stomach were 
found to contain two gallons of water ; but in consequence of 
the muscular contraction, which had taken place immediately 
after death, he was led to conclude this was a quantity much 
less than these cavities were capable of receiving in the living 
animal. See Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, by Sir E. 
Home, vol. i. p. 168. 



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CHAPTER XIII. 

TAB XXVII. TONGUE OF THE WOODPECKER, AND 

SKULL OF THE BABYROUESSA. 

Fig. 1. The head of the woodpecker, (picus viridis.) 
Fig. 2. The tongue, the natural size. 

Fig. 3. The claw of the same bird, referred to in Chap. V. 
Fig. 4. The skull of the babyrouessa, from a specimen in the 
Anatomy School, Christ Church, Oxford. 



TA.Bo XXVII, 





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CHAPTER XIV. 

TAB. XXVIII. TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT TEETH. 

Fig. 1. The gums and outer plate of the bone are removed, 
showing the teeth of the infant, as they exist at the time of its 
birth ; they are without roots, and contained in a capsule within 
the jaws. 

Fig. 2. In this figure also, the outer alveolar plate of the 
jaws has been removed to show the succession of teeth. This 
is the state at six years of age. The temporary teeth are all 
shed between the ages of seven and fourteen, and are supplied 
by the permanent teeth, already nearly perfectly formed, and 
situated at the roots of the former. 



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CHAPTER XIV. 

TAB. XXIX. FORAMEN OVALE, AND DUCTUS 

ARTERIOSUS. 

Fig. 1. A view of the foetal heart; a, the ascending, b, the 
descending vena cava ; c, the right auricle ; d, e,f, mark the 
elevated ring of the foramen ovale, or the opening between the 
two auricles. 

Fig. 2. The foetal heart ; a, the pulmonary artery ; b, b, its 
branches ; c, the ductus arteriosus, or canal for transmitting the 
blood into, d, the aorta. As the lungs are useless in the foetus, 
unless-as a " prospective contrivance," the heart has to carry on 
a single circulation only : the free communication between the 
two auricles identifies them as one cavity ; and the ventricles 
also force the blood into one vessel, the aorta. 



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CHAPTER XVI. 

TAB. XXX. THE CHAMELEON, AND GUT OF THE 

SEA FOX. 

Fig. 1. The chameleon, drawn from one of the species pre- 
served in the Anatomy School, Christ Church, Oxford. The 
eyes of this creature are very peculiar : they are remarkably 
large, and project more than half their diameter. They are 
covered with a single eye-lid, with a small opening in it 
opposite the pupil. The eye-lid is granulated like every part 
of the surface of the body, with this difference, over the eye the 
granulations are disposed in concentric circles which form folds 
in that part to which the eye is turned : and as the lid is 
attached to the front of the eye, so it follows all its movements. 
The neck is not " inflexible," but its shortness, and the struc- 
ture of the cervical vertebrae exceedingly limit the motion ; this 
however is admirably compensated by the not less singular 
local position than motion of the eye, as the animal can see 
behind, before, or on either side, without turning the head. 

Fig. 2. The spiral intestine of the sea-fox cut open ; taken from 
a preparation in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, 
London. The sea-fox is not, as Paley supposes, a " qua- 
druped ; " but a species of shark (squalus vulpes.) The con- 
voluted intestinal tube is found in some * genera of fish, only. 
In this specimen the internal membrane is converted into a 
spiral valve, having thirty-six coils, so that the alimentary 
substances, instead of passing speedily away, by proceeding 
round the turns of the valve, traverse a very considerable 
circuit : an extensive surface for the absorbents is thus pro- 
vided. 

Fig. 3. The valve removed from the intestine in a dried pre- 
paration showing its real form. 



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CHAPTER XIX. 

TAB. XXXI. THE WINGS OF THE BEETLE, AWL, 

STING OF THE BEE, PROBOSCIS, &C. 

Fig. 1. is an instance of the horny and gauze wings in one 
of the most beautiful of the beetle class of this country, the 
scarabceus auratus, or rose chafer ; showing the expanded elytra, 
a, a : the true wings, b, b. 

Fig. 2. A specimen of the elytra covering half the body in 
the ear-wig, (forficula auricularia :) one of the elytra is extended, 
and the membranous wing unfolded. 

Fig. 3. The awl of the cestrum bonis, or gad-fly, highly mag- 
nified. 

Fig. 4. One of the hooks. 

Fig. 5. The sting of a bee, drawn from nature as it appears 
by means of a magnifier of very high powers ; a, a, a, a, the 
apparatus for projecting the sting ; b, the exterior, c, the interior 
sheath of, d, the true sting, which is divided into two parts 
barbed at the sides ; e, the bag which contains the poison. 

Fig. 6. The proboscis of a bee extended ; a, a, the case or 
sheath ; b, the tube ; c, the exterior, d, the interior fringes ; e, 
the tongue ; /,/, the exterior, g, g, the interior palpi. 

Fig. 7. The appearance of the proboscis when contracted, 
and folded up. 

Fig. 8. The head of a butterfly, showing the coiled proboscis* 



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CHAPTER XX. 

TAB. XXXII. THE CAPSULE, PISTIL, STAMINA, 

NIGELLA, PLUMULE, AND RADICLE. 

Fig. 1. The capsule or seed vessel of the poppy (papaver 
somniferum) : it is divided to exhibit its internal structure. 

Fig. 2. is an instance of an erect flower, the agave America- 
na ; in which the pistil is shorter than the stamina. 

Fig. 3. A flower of the crown-imperial. The relative length 
of the parts is now inverted. 

Fig. 4. A blossom of the nigella. 

Fig. 5. A grain of barley, showing the plumule and radicle 
growing from it. 



TAB, XXXII. 




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CHAPTER XX. 



TAB. XXXIII. VALLISNERIA. 



Fig. 1. Vallisneria spiralis. The female plant, the flowers 
of which are purple. This is drawn from a specimen in the 
possession of Dr. Ogle. 

Fig. 2. The male plant, producing white flowers ; these when 
mature rise like air bubbles, and suddenly expanding when they 
reach the surface of the water, float about in such abundance 
as to cover it entirely. " Thus their pollen is scattered over 
the stigmas of the first mentioned blossoms, whose stalks soon 
afterwards resume their spiral figure, and the fruit comes to 
maturity at the bottom of the water." 

Fig. 3. One of the separated male flowers magnified. 



CHAPTER XX. 

TAB. XXXIV. CUSCUTA EUROPiEA. 

This plant is a native of our own Country, and is found in 
hedges, on clover, or on beans, where it proves exceedingly 
injurious to the crop. It flowers from June to August. The 
drawing was taken from a specimen which grew in the Physic 
Gardens, Oxford. Tt is represented twining about some nettles 
on which it annually attaches itself. 

" Of all the parasitical plants, the dodder (cu scuta) tribe are 
the most singular, trusting for their nourishment entirely to those 
vegetables about which they twine, and into whose tender bark 
they insert small villous tubercles serving as roots, the original 
root of the dodder withering away entirely, as soon as the young 
stem has fixed itself to any other plant ; so that its connexion 
with the earth is cut off." English Botany, p. 55. 



TABo^SXXIV; 




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CHAPTER XX. 

TAB. XXXV. THE AUTUMNAL CROCUS, 

The colchicum autumnale. This plant before us exhibits a 
mode of fructification scarcely paralleled among British vegeta- 
bles. The flowers appearing very late in autumn, the impreg- 
nated germen remains latent under ground close to the bulb till 
the following spring, when the capsule rises above the surface 
accompanied by several long upright leaves, and the seeds are 
ripened about June, after which the leaves decay. See British 
Botany, vol. i. p. 133. The plant is represented as it appears 
in spring ; the root is divided to show the seed vessel near the 
bulb. The flower is remarkable for the length of its tube. 



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CHAPTER XX. 

TAB. XXXVI. THE DIONiEA MUSCIPULA. 

Venus's fly-trap. Some parts of this plant are so remark- 
able as to deserve a particular description. It is a native of 
North Carolina; the root perennial; leaves all radical, sup- 
ported on long fleshy and strongly . veined footstalks, leaving a 
small portion of this next the leaf naked : the leaf itself con- 
sists of two semi-oval lobes jointed at the back, so as to allow 
them to fold close together ; they are fleshy, and, when viewed 
through a lens, glandular, sometimes of a reddish colour on 
the upper surface ; the sides of both lobes are furnished with a 
row of cartilaginous ciliae which stand nearly at right angles 
with the surface of the leaf, and lock into each other when they 
close. Near the middle of each lobe are three small spines, 
which are supposed to assist in destroying the entrapped insect. 
In warm weather the lobes are fully expanded and highly irrita- 
ble, and if a fly or other insect at this time light upon them they 
suddenly close, and the poor animal is imprisoned till it dies. 
See Curtis's Botanical Magazine, No. 785. 



TAIB„!OniTir . 




INDEX. 

Tab. 1. Parts of a watch. 

Tab. 2. Lens of a fish — Humours of the eye — Image formed oil the 
retina — Lens of a telescope — Crystalline lens — Iris and straight 
muscles of the eye. 

Tab. 3. Bony rim in the eye of birds — Marsupium and eye of the eel. 

Tab. 4. Lachrymal gland and duct— Nictitating membrane and its 
muscles. 

Tab. 5. The anatomy of the human ear, and the tympanum of the 
elephant. 

Tab. 6. The trochlear muscle of the eye, and section of the human 
kidney. 

Tab. 7. The bones of the head and neck. 

Tab. 8. Bones of the arm. 

Tab. 9. The human spine, and vertebrae of the serpent. 

Tab. 10. The thorax— Patella, and scapula. 

Tab. 11. The hip joint — Knee, interarticular cartilages, and ankle joint. 

Tab. 12. Sartorius muscle, and oblique muscles of the head. 

Tab. 13. The muscles of the arm. 

Tab. 14. Muscles of the eye-lid, and sphincters. 

Tab. 15. Digastric muscle. 

Tab. 16. Flexors of the toes, and ligaments across the instep. 

Tab. 17. The heart and its valves. 

Tab. 18. The stomach, liver, gall-bladder, &c. 

Tab. 19. The lacteals and thoracic duct, showing the course of the 
food. 

Tab. 20. The parotid gland and its duct. 

Tab. 21. The larynx, trachea, oesophagus, &c. '•• 

Tab. 22. Package of the viscera, and mesentery. 

Tab. 23. Nerves in the bill of the duck — Valvulse conniventes — Air- 
bladder of a fish, and fang of a viper. 

Tab. 24. The opossum and its young, and the pelvis. 

Tab. 25. Middle claw of the heron — Bill of the Soland goose. 

Tab. 26. Stomach of the camel. 

Tab. 27. Tongue of the woodpecker, and skull of the babyrouessa. 

Tab. 28. Temporary and permanent teeth. 

Tab. 29. Foramen ovale, and ductus arteriosus in the fetal heart.. 

Tab 30. The eye of the chameleon, and the intestine of the sea-fox. 

Tab. 31. The elytra of the scarabseus auratus— Awl of the oestrum 
bovis — Sting and proboscis of the bee — Proboscis of the but- 
terfly. 

Tab. 32. The seed vessel of the poppy — Stamina and pistil in the 
agave — in the crown imperial — Blossom of the nigejla— Plumule 
and radicle. . • 

Tab. 33. The vallisneria spiralis. 

Tab. 34. Cuscuta Europsea. 

Tab. 35. Colchicum autumnale. 

Tab. 36. Dioneea muscipula. 



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